Publication

Many active hydrothermal sites resulting from active volcanism have been recognized in the Okinawa Trough, a nascent back-arc basin. Despite its importance for understanding whole hydrothermal circulation, low-temperature (LT) hydrothermal activity, which precipitates ferromanganese (Fe–Mn) oxides, has not been actively studied compared to high-temperature (HT) hydrothermal activity, which forms sulfide deposits. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the origin and formation of Fe–Mn oxides obtained from the outer rim of the Daigo-Kume Knoll caldera in the middle Okinawa Trough based on their chemical and mineral compositions. Composed of birnessite and todorokite, the Fe–Mn oxide samples contain low levels of trace elements, indicating their precipitation from LT hydrothermal fluids. This is the first report of hydrothermal activity at the Daigo-Kume Knoll. Based on an independent component analysis of elemental mapping data, it was determined that the hydrothermal activity consisted of two stages: a primary hotter LT hydrothermal fluid (roughly 30 °C–150 °C) that altered silicate debris and precipitated mainly Fe oxides, and a secondary colder LT hydrothermal fluid (roughly 30 °C) that precipitated mainly Mn oxides without alteration. The growth rate, estimated from the chemical composition, and the thickness of the Fe–Mn oxide samples indicated that the duration of the hydrothermal activity was about 17.7–29.5 kyr. In contrast to their LT hydrothermal origin, the high Mo/Mn ratio of the Fe–Mn oxide samples suggested that the LT hydrothermal fluids that precipitated the Fe–Mn oxide samples might be originally produced by HT water–rock interactions.